This article analyzes the historical processes of Orientalismʼs formation, its ideological and philosophical foundations, as well as the role of this phenomenon in shaping relations between East and West. The study examines the historical roots of Orientalism and the evolution of Western academic activities aimed at studying the East. The main significance of this work lies in its contribution to a deeper understanding of East-West relationships by revealing the specific historical and contemporary aspects of Orientalism.

At the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century, the Arab Republic of Egypt, both in domestic and foreign policy, fought against religious extremism, radicalism and terrorism, which posed a great threat to the security and stability of the country. The article analyzes the features of the fight against religious extremism and terrorism in the regional security policy of Egypt during the presidency of Hosni Mubarak and Abdel Fattah al-Sisi.

This article examines the political and economic measures implemented by the Mughal Emperor Nuruddin Muhammad Jahangir upon his accession to the throne at the beginning of the 17th century. Drawing primarily from the Emperor's own autobiography, the "Jahangirnama" (Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri), the study analyzes the financial strategies used to consolidate power. Key findings reveal Jahangir’s efforts to stabilize the court by eliminating factionalism and securing loyalty through significant salary increases for officials (a minimum of 20%) and the specialized military corps, the Ahadiys (50%). The research details the redistribution of high-ranking mansabs (ranks), showing Jahangir's reliance on both loyal Mavarounnahr-origin allies and prominent Indian figures like the Rajputs. Crucially, the paper explores the Emperor's comprehensive monetary reforms, including the introduction of new gold coins (Muhr, Nur Shahi, Nur Sultani) struck in unique weights (tolas) and inscribed with distinct poetic and religious phrases. These findings illuminate the early economic policies and administrative changes that underpinned Jahangir's reign, confirming his systematic approach to establishing political authority and fiscal stability through administrative hierarchy and currency control.

This article is dedicated to the state administration system in the Khiva Khanate, the appointment of local officials, and the procedures for citizens’ receptions at the palace. The article highlights the activities of the Council, various positions within the Khanate, palace ceremonies, the roles of officials such as the eshikog‘a, and the distinctive features of the reception procedures. It also provides information about the political and social reforms implemented after the new Khan ascends the throne, as well as the Nurullaboy palace and the ceremonies held in the Ark.

The requirement for the argumentativeness of knowledge is usually referred to as the principle of sufficient reason (justification), first formulated by the German philosopher and mathematician G. W. Leibniz. The article analyzes the specific features of logical justification in the social sciences. The views of both Western and Eastern philosophers are compared; a comparative analysis is carried out of their theories, the correlation between value and logical categories, and the methods of cognition in the exact and natural sciences as well as in the humanities and socio-economic disciplines. It is substantiated that argumentation in social cognition is influenced by factors such as ideology, political and evaluative attitudes, and national customs and traditions. The author concludes that methods of incomplete induction and traducive (analogical) inferences are used to a greater extent in social cognition; consequently, the hypothetical character of argumentation is at a higher level, and the humanistic ideal of scientificity differs from that of the natural sciences.

This article examines the philosophical and historical evolution of Western thought on the phenomenon of social conflict. Beginning with the views of ancient Greek philosophers such as Heraclitus, Plato, and Aristotle, the study traces how ideas of enmity, justice, and social order shaped early concepts of human coexistence. It then explores the transformation of these views during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, when thinkers like Erasmus of Rotterdam, Thomas More, and Dante sought moral and religious foundations for peace and social harmony. The works of early modern philosophers – Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, and Machiavelli – are analyzed as attempts to explain social contradictions through theories of human nature, natural law, and the social contract. Further attention is given to the development of conflict theory in the modern era, including the dialectical approach of Hegel and Marx, the psychological interpretation of Freud, and the sociological models of Weber, Simmel, Dahrendorf, and Coser. The analysis reveals two dominant paradigms in Western intellectual history: the pessimistic approach, which views conflict as an inevitable and destructive part of human existence, and the optimistic approach, which interprets it as a stimulus for progress and social transformation. The study concludes that the diversity of opinions on social conflict reflects the socio-economic and cultural realities of each historical period. Recognizing conflict as a universal and functional aspect of social life, Western thinkers have gradually shifted from condemning it as a moral evil to understanding it as a driving force for social development and democratic reform.

Background: The colonial period in Bihar was a time of significant social and cultural flux. While the role of Christian missionaries in India is widely acknowledged, their specific contributions to education and social reform within the unique socio-political context of Bihar remain underexplored. This article seeks to fill that gap by providing a comprehensive analysis of the multifaceted impact of missionary activities in the region.

Objective: The primary objective of this study is to critically examine the nature, extent, and legacy of Christian missionary involvement in the educational and social spheres of colonial Bihar. It aims to dissect their role as catalysts for change, while also considering the complexities and criticisms associated with their work.

Methods: This study employs a qualitative historical analysis, drawing on a wide range of primary and secondary sources. Primary sources include archival records from missionary societies and colonial government reports, while secondary sources consist of a thorough review of existing scholarly literature on the subject. A thematic and comparative analytical framework is used to evaluate the impact across various domains.

Results: The findings reveal that Christian missionaries were pioneers in several key areas. They were instrumental in establishing Western-style education, promoting vernacular literature through printing presses, and introducing vocational training. Crucially, they extended educational opportunities to marginalized groups, including women, tribal communities, and lower castes, thereby challenging entrenched social hierarchies. Furthermore, their work in healthcare and advocacy against social evils like Sati and child marriage marked them as significant agents of social reform.

Conclusion: The study concludes that Christian missionaries in colonial Bihar left an enduring and complex legacy. While their motives were often intertwined with the colonial enterprise and evangelism, their contributions to education and social reform were transformative. They not only introduced new institutions and ideas but also created new avenues for social mobility and empowerment for the most vulnerable

sections of society. This article provides a nuanced perspective on their role, acknowledging both their pioneering efforts and the inherent controversies of their position.

This article presents a comprehensive study of the manuscripts of the Holy Quran copied in India during the Babur (Mughal) dynasty (1526–1858), analyzing them through historical, artistic, and aesthetic dimensions. Special attention is given to the Qurans produced during the reigns of Zahiriddin Muhammad Babur, Nasiruddin Humayun, and Jalaluddin Akbar, whose periods marked the foundation, consolidation, and cultural flourishing of the Mughal Empire. The article explores the development of manuscript-writing traditions, the evolution of calligraphic schools, and the introduction of various scripts such as suls, naskh, and nastaliq under royal patronage.

In addition, the research highlights the decorative techniques applied in manuscript illumination, including the use of gold and lapis pigments, floral arabesques, and geometric patterns reflecting the synthesis of Persian, Central Asian, and Indian artistic elements. The role of royal ateliers (kitabkhana) in promoting refined calligraphy and miniature art is examined as a major factor in shaping the aesthetic identity of Qurans of this era. The article also traces the movement and preservation of these manuscripts over time, noting their dispersion across major libraries and museum collections in London, Delhi, Istanbul, and Tashkent.

Through a comparative analysis of stylistic and paleographic features, the study provides new insights into how the Baburid intellectual and cultural environment influenced the spiritual visuality of Quranic manuscripts. By documenting their current condition and conservation practices, the paper underscores the importance of these works as invaluable witnesses of Islamic art and intercultural dialogue between East and South Asia.

In this article, the author conducts a comparative analysis of the party systems in the Republics of Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. The study examines post-independence political development, the structure of party systems, electoral processes, and international influences. In Uzbekistan's political system, government-supporting parties predominate. In Kazakhstan, the Amanat party holds a dominant position, while recent reforms aim to expand political pluralism. The article identifies similarities and differences in the political systems of the two countries, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses. It also evaluates the political dynamics in Central Asia and assesses future prospects for democracy in the region.