This article examines the structural and conceptual contradictions within the Avesta and their implications for understanding the development of Zoroastrian theology, cosmology, and religious doctrine. Drawing upon a comparative textual and historiographical analysis of the Gathas, Yasna, Yashts, and Videvdad, the study investigates inconsistencies concerning the creative role of Ahura Mazda, the functions of the Amesha Spentas and the yazatas, the concepts of cosmology and cosmogony, the doctrine of fravashi, and the evolving portrayal of Yima and Zarathustra. The article also critically evaluates the interpretations advanced by leading Avestan scholars, including Mary Boyce, L. A. Lelekov, H. Lommel, R. C. Zaehner, É. Benveniste, and others. It argues that the Avesta should not be understood as a single, internally homogeneous theological system but rather as a multilayered corpus that reflects different chronological stages of composition, successive priestly redactions, and changing social, political, and religious contexts. The identified contradictions do not diminish the historical value of the Avesta; instead, they provide important evidence for reconstructing the evolution of Zoroastrian thought and the transformation of its religious tradition. The study concludes that a comprehensive analysis of these internal inconsistencies offers new perspectives for Avestan studies and contributes to a deeper understanding of the intellectual and spiritual heritage of ancient Turan and Iran.

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is rapidly reshaping the landscape of historical research by enabling new methods of data interpretation, pattern recognition, and digital reconstruction of cultural and historical knowledge systems. This paper examines the transformative role of AI in historical inquiry, with a specific focus on opportunities for enhanced archival analysis, computational modeling of historical environments, and immersive reconstruction through augmented and virtual reality systems. At the same time, it critically evaluates the methodological, epistemological, and ethical challenges introduced by AI-driven historical interpretation.

The study synthesizes insights from digital modeling frameworks, knowledge representation systems, and cultural heritage computing to construct a multidisciplinary perspective on AI-enabled historical research. Prior research demonstrates that modeling technologies such as Model Driven Architecture (MDA) and meta-modeling frameworks significantly improve the structuring and transformation of complex historical datasets (Hongxu Sun, 2012; Wile, 1997). Similarly, advances in virtual and augmented reality provide immersive pathways for historical reconstruction and education, allowing historians to simulate environments that are no longer physically accessible (Billinghurst, 2015; Kim et al., 2016).

However, the integration of AI into historical analysis also introduces critical concerns regarding interpretive bias, algorithmic transparency, and epistemic reliability. As computational systems increasingly mediate historical narratives, the risk of reducing complex socio-cultural phenomena into overly deterministic models becomes significant. Furthermore, the reliance on structured modeling languages and automated extraction systems raises questions about data completeness and interpretive authority (Bork et al., 2018; Durisic et al., 2017).

This paper argues that AI should be understood not as a replacement for traditional historiography but as an augmentative framework that enhances analytical depth while preserving interpretive plurality. It proposes a hybrid methodological approach combining computational modeling, archival theory, and critical historiography

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is increasingly transforming knowledge production across disciplines, including fields traditionally dependent upon human interpretation and contextual reasoning. Historical research, which has long relied on archival investigation, source criticism, comparative analysis, and interpretative judgment, is entering a new phase characterized by the integration of machine learning, automated text analysis, predictive modeling, and intelligent data processing. The growing availability of digitized archives and computational tools has created opportunities for historians to analyze large-scale historical datasets, identify hidden patterns, and generate new forms of historical insight. However, the integration of AI into historical scholarship also introduces significant methodological, epistemological, and ethical challenges. Algorithmic systems are not neutral instruments; they are shaped by training data, design assumptions, and embedded value judgments that may influence historical interpretation and representation.

This paper examines the opportunities, biases, and ethical challenges associated with the application of AI in historical research. Drawing upon contemporary literature on algorithmic bias, machine learning opacity, ethical technology design, responsible innovation, and trustworthy AI, the study develops a conceptual framework for understanding the implications of AI-driven historical inquiry. The analysis explores how AI can improve archival accessibility, accelerate document classification, support multilingual historical analysis, and enhance pattern recognition across extensive historical corpora. Simultaneously, it investigates risks related to algorithmic bias, transparency deficits, historical misrepresentation, automated decision-making, and the concentration of interpretative authority within technological systems.

The paper further evaluates governance mechanisms necessary for responsible AI adoption in historical scholarship. Particular attention is given to explainability, accountability, human oversight, participatory ethical design, and the preservation of historiographical diversity. The findings suggest that AI should function as an augmentative rather than substitutive technology within historical research. While AI can significantly enhance efficiency and analytical capacity, its outputs require continuous critical

evaluation by historians. The study concludes that the future of historical research depends not only on technological advancement but also on the development of ethical frameworks capable of safeguarding scholarly integrity, interpretative pluralism, and historical authenticity in an increasingly algorithmic research environment.

The article proposes a system of motivational-value, cognitive-goal, activity-behavioral and reflexive-regulatory criteria for diagnosing the motivation of non-philological students to master the English language. The approach is based on indicators, diagnostic tools and levels of measurement for each criterion.

Artificial This study investigates the connections between climate fluctuations, environmental pressures, and the development and decline of past civilizations, with the aim of drawing broader lessons for long-term socio-ecological sustainability. Rather than viewing civilizational collapse as the outcome of political failure alone, the research interprets it as a complex process shaped by ecological degradation, excessive resource use, and structural constraints on growth. Using insights from systems theory, political economy, and civilizational studies, the paper explores how environmental challenges interact with governance arrangements, economic systems, and cultural frameworks.

A central analytical perspective is provided by the theory of systemic growth limits, which proposes that continuous population and economic expansion eventually encounter ecological boundaries. This perspective is combined with theories of civilizational transition that emphasize technological and socio-economic transformations as major forces of historical change. In addition, critiques of imperial and global systems help explain how unequal patterns of resource extraction can intensify environmental pressures across different regions.

The research employs a comparative and conceptual approach by synthesizing interdisciplinary literature on environmental constraints, economic development, and civilizational change. The analysis suggests that societal collapse is generally the result of interactions between ecological stress and institutional inflexibility rather than climate change acting independently. Recurring patterns identified in the literature include excessive dependence on centralized resource networks, limited institutional adaptability, and a mismatch between economic growth and ecological capacity.

The findings indicate that environmental collapse should be understood as a systemic process driven by reinforcing feedback loops among ecological deterioration, socio-political instability, and economic disparities. The study concludes that contemporary societies face challenges similar to those experienced by historical civilizations under environmental stress. Consequently.

Climate change has emerged as one of the most significant challenges confronting contemporary societies. Although modern climate discourse often focuses on industrialization, greenhouse gas emissions, and technological adaptation, the relationship between climatic variability and societal stability has deep historical roots. Throughout human history, environmental changes have shaped the rise, transformation, and decline of civilizations. Ancient societies depended heavily on ecological systems for agriculture, water management, trade, and political organization, making them particularly vulnerable to climatic disturbances. This paper investigates the interactions between climate change and historical civilizations, emphasizing lessons derived from environmental collapse in ancient societies. Through a comprehensive review-based analysis of climate science literature and environmental vulnerability frameworks, the study examines how prolonged droughts, temperature fluctuations, water scarcity, ecosystem degradation, and resource mismanagement contributed to social instability and institutional decline.

The paper synthesizes contemporary climate-change scholarship with historical interpretations of environmental collapse to establish an interdisciplinary framework connecting ecological stress and societal resilience. Drawing upon climate-related studies addressing temperature trends, water-resource challenges, agricultural sustainability, biodiversity impacts, and adaptation mechanisms, the analysis identifies recurring patterns across historical civilizations. Environmental pressures rarely acted as isolated causes of collapse; rather, they interacted with political, economic, demographic, and technological factors to amplify vulnerabilities. The findings demonstrate that resilience depended on adaptive governance, sustainable resource management, diversification of economic systems, and institutional flexibility.

The study further argues that modern societies face analogous risks despite technological advancements. Increasing temperatures, declining water availability, agricultural stress, biodiversity loss, and food-security concerns reveal parallels with historical experiences. Lessons from ancient environmental collapses provide valuable insights into contemporary climate adaptation strategies. The research contributes to climate-change scholarship by integrating historical perspectives into modern sustainability discussions and highlighting the importance of long-term environmental governance. The paper concludes that understanding environmental collapse in historical civilizations offers critical guidance for strengthening resilience and reducing vulnerability in the Anthropocene era.

nationalism and social media-driven political communication have fundamentally reshaped the formation of youth political identity in the contemporary post-truth era. This research examines how algorithmic infrastructures, platform-specific content distribution systems, and misinformation ecosystems influence political perception, ideological alignment, and identity construction among young users. The study synthesizes interdisciplinary literature from political communication, computational social science, and digital media studies to develop a comprehensive analytical framework of digitally mediated nationalism.

Findings indicate that youth political identity is increasingly shaped by algorithmic personalization and participatory media environments rather than traditional institutions such as education systems or legacy news media. Social media platforms amplify emotionally charged narratives, enabling rapid diffusion of nationalist discourse while simultaneously embedding users within echo chambers and fragmented information ecosystems (Hong and Nadler, 2012; Meraz and Papacharissi, 2013). Furthermore, the post-truth condition intensifies epistemic uncertainty, where subjective belief systems often outweigh objective factual verification in political reasoning (Kluknavska and Eisele, 2023).

The research highlights that digital nationalism is not a uniform ideology but a dynamic, platform-dependent construct shaped by algorithmic curation, peer-to-peer engagement, and influencer-driven communication structures. Youth engagement is particularly significant due to their high digital literacy and dependence on social networking platforms for political information consumption (Lee and Xenos, 2022). However, this engagement is also associated with increased vulnerability to misinformation, ideological polarization, and fragmented civic participation.

By integrating agenda-setting theory, networked gatekeeping models, and computational content analysis frameworks, this study proposes a multi-layered model of digital political identity formation. The research concludes that digital nationalism represents both an opportunity for civic mobilization and a challenge to democratic deliberation in the post-truth information ecosystem.

This article provides a theoretical-legal analysis of the legal-technical objectives of codifying legislation. The author treats codification not merely as the highest form of systematizing legal norms, but as a method of qualitatively renewing the body of legislation through the special instruments of legal technique. The article examines the historical-theoretical foundations of codification, its types and forms, the experience of foreign states, and the principal legal-technical tasks of codification — eliminating contradictions between normative legal acts, filling legal gaps, ensuring terminological unity, condensing legislation, shaping its systemic structure, ensuring the stability of legislation, and simplifying law-enforcement practice. The implementation of these objectives is also analysed on the example of the codification practice of the legislation of the Republic of Uzbekistan, together with existing problems and possible solutions.