Background: In an era marked by increasing seismic activity and the recognized insufficiency of current predictive models, there is a pressing need to explore historical precedents for resilient design. Ancient Indian temples, many of which have stood for over a millennium in active seismic zones, represent enduring feats of engineering. This article investigates the structural principles that have contributed to their remarkable longevity.

Objective: The primary objective is to identify and analyze the specific design, engineering, and construction techniques in ancient Indian temple architecture that contribute to earthquake resilience, framing them as a cohesive system of "structural intelligence."

Methods: This study employs a qualitative, historical-architectural analysis. It synthesizes evidence from classical Sanskrit architectural treatises, such as the Manasara [3], with modern scholarship on temple architecture [1, 2]. This textual and historical analysis is cross-referenced with technical data from Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) reports [4], structural vulnerability assessments of heritage sites by IIT Roorkee [5], and UNESCO World Heritage Centre dossiers [6].

Results: The analysis identifies four key strategies for seismic resilience. These include: (1) sophisticated foundation systems designed to isolate the structure from ground motion; (2) the use of heavy superstructures and plinths as a form of mass damping; (3) the extensive use of mortar-less, interlocking masonry that allows for energy dissipation through micro-movements and friction; and (4) the inherent stability of the pyramidal and curvilinear architectural forms, which maintain a low center of gravity and effectively distribute lateral loads.

Conclusion: Ancient Indian temple architecture exhibits a sophisticated, empirically developed system of seismic resilience. These time-tested principles of flexibility, mass damping, and geometric stability offer invaluable insights for contemporary engineering and architecture, providing a paradigm for sustainable design in the face of modern seismic threats.

Seismic Resilience, Indian Temple Architecture, Structural Engineering

Hardy A. The temple architecture of India. Chichester (UK): Wiley; 2007.

Fergusson J. History of Indian and Eastern architecture. 2 vols. London: John Murray; 1910.

Acharya PK. Architecture of Manasara: translated from original Sanskrit. Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation; 1933. Reprint edition; 1979.

Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). Annual reports of the Archaeological Survey of India: Modhera, Bhubaneswar, Khajuraho (various years). New Delhi: ASI Publications; various years.

Earthquake Engineering Research Center, IIT Roorkee. Structural vulnerability assessment reports on heritage buildings in seismic zones of India. Roorkee: Indian Institute of Technology; 2002-2020.

UNESCO. World heritage site dossiers: Group of Monuments at Khajuraho, Sun Temple at Konark, Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur, etc. Paris: UNESCO World Heritage Centre.